Introduction

In the last few years the number of teachers using Computer-assisted Language Learning (CALL) has increased markedly and numerous articles have been written about the role of technology in education in the 21st century. Although the potential of the Internet for educational use has not been fully explored yet and the average school still makes limited use of computers, it is obvious that we have entered a new information age in which the links between technology and TEFL have already been established.

In the early 90′s education started being affected by the introduction of word processors in schools, colleges and universities. This mainly had to do with written assignments. The development of the Internet brought about a revolution in the teachers’ perspective, as the teaching tools offered through the Internet were gradually becoming more reliable. Nowadays, the Internet is gaining immense popularity in foreign language teaching and more and more educators and learners are embracing it.

. The Objectives 0f using CALL

Research and practice suggest that, appropriately implemented, network-based technology can contribute significantly to:

Experiential Learning

The World Wide Web makes it possible for students to tackle a huge amount of human experience. In such a way, they can learn by doing things themselves. They become the creators not just the receivers of knowledge. As the way information is presented is not linear, users develop thinking skills and choose what to explore.

Motivation

Computers are most popular among students either because they are associated with fun and games or because they are considered to be fashionable. Student motivation is therefore increased, especially whenever a variety of activities are offered, which make them feel more independent.

Enhanced Student Achievement

Network-based instruction can help pupils strengthen their linguistic skills by positively affecting their learning attitude and by helping them build self-instruction strategies and promote their self-confidence.

Authentic Materials for Study

All students can use various resources of authentic reading materials either at school or from their home. Those materials can be accessed 24 hours a day at a relatively low cost.

Greater Interaction

Random access to Web pages breaks the linear flow of instruction. By sending E-mail and joining newsgroups, EFL students can communicate with people they have never met. They can also interact with their own classmates. Furthermore, some Internet activities give students positive and negative feedback by automatically correcting their on-line exercises.

Individualization

Shy or inhibited students can be greatly benefited by individualized, student-centered collaborative learning. High fliers can also realize their full potential without preventing their peers from working at their own pace

.

Independence from a Single Source of Information

Although students can still use their books, they are given the chance to escape from canned knowledge and discover thousands of information sources. As a result, their education fulfils the need for interdisciplinary learning in a multicultural world.

Global Understanding

A foreign language is studied in a cultural context. In a world where the use of the Internet becomes more and more widespread, an English Language teacher’s duty is to facilitate students’ access to the web and make them feel citizens of a global classroom, practicing communication on a global level.

What Can We Do With CALL?

There is a wide range of on-line applications which are already available for use in the foreign language class. These include dictionaries and encyclopedias, links for teachers, chat-rooms, pronunciation tutors, grammar and vocabulary quizzes, games and puzzles, literary extracts. The World Wide Web (WWW) is a virtual library of information that can be accessed by any user around the clock. If someone wants to read or listen to the news, for example, there are a number of sources offering the latest news either printed or recorded. The most important newspapers and magazines in the world are available on-line and the same is the case with radio and TV channels.

Another example is communicating with electronic pen friends, something that most students would enjoy. Teachers should explain how it all works and help students find their keypals. Two EFL classes from different countries can arrange to send E-mail regularly to one another. This can be done quite easily thanks to the web sites providing lists of students looking for communication. It is also possible for two or more students to join a chat-room and talk on-line through E-mail. .

Another network-based EFL activity could be project writing. By working for a project a pupil can construct knowledge rather that only receive it. Students can work on their own, in groups of two or in larger teams, in order to write an assignment, the size of which may vary according to the objectives set by the instructor. A variety of sources can be used besides the Internet such as school libraries, encyclopedias, reference books etc. The Internet itself can provide a lot of food for thought. The final outcome of their research can be typed using a word processor. A word processor can be used in writing compositions, in preparing a class newsletter or in producing a school home page. In such a Web page students can publish their project work so that it can reach a wider audience. That makes them feel more responsible for the final product and consequently makes them work more laboriously.

The Internet and the rise of computer-mediated communication in particular have reshaped the uses of computers for language learning. The recent shift to global information-based economies means that students will need to learn how to deal with large amounts of information and have to be able to communicate across languages and cultures. At the same time, the role of the teacher has changed as well. Teachers are not the only source of information any more, but act as facilitators so that students can actively interpret and organize the information they are given, fitting it into prior knowledge (Dole, et al., 1991). Students have become active participants in learning and are encouraged to be explorers and creators of language rather than passive recipients of it (Brown, 1991). Integrative CALL stresses these issues and additionally lets learners of a language communicate inexpensively with other learners or native speakers. As such, it combines information processing, communication, use of authentic language, and learner autonomy, all of which are of major importance in current language learning theories.

Teachers’ Barriers to the Use of Computer-assisted Language Learning

The barriers inhibiting the practice of Computer-assisted Language Learning can be classified in the following common categories (a) financial barriers, (b) availability of computer hardware and software, (c) technical and theoretical knowledge, and (d) acceptance of the technology.

Financial Barriers

Financial barriers are mentioned most frequently in the literature by language education practitioners. They include the cost of hardware, software, maintenance (particular of the most advanced equipment), and extend to some staff development. Froke (1994b) said, “concerning the money, the challenge was unique because of the nature of the technology.” Existing universities policies and procedures for budgeting and accounting were well advanced for classroom instruction. The costs of media were accounted for in the university as a part of the cost of instruction. Though the initial investment in hardware is high, inhibiting institutions’ introduction of advance technologies; but Hooper (1995) recommends that the cost of computers will be so low that they will be available in most schools and homes in the future.

Lewis et al. (1994) indicate three conditions under which Computer-assisted Learning and other technologies can be cost-effectiveness: Computer-assisted Learning costs the same as conventional instruction but ends up with producing higher achievement in the same amount of instructional time, it results in students achieving the same level but in less time. These authors indicate that in examples where costs of using technologies in education are calculated, they are usually understand because the value of factors, such as faculty time and cost of equipment utilization, is ignored (McClelland, 1996).

Herschbach (1994) argues firmly that new technologies are add-on expenses and will not, in many cases, lower the cost of providing educational services. He stated that that the new technologies probably will not replace the teachers, but will supplement their efforts, as has been the pattern with other technologies. The technologies will not decrease educational costs or increase teacher productivity as currently used. Low usage causes the cost barrier. Computers, interactive instruction TV, and other devices are used very few hours of the day, week, or month. Either the number of learners or the amount of time learners apply the technology must be increased substantially to approach the concept of cost-effectiveness. There are other more quick and less expensive ways of reducing costs, no matter how inexpensive the technology being used (Kincaid, McEachron, & McKinney,1994.

Availability of Computer Hardware and Software

The most significant aspects of computer are hardware and software. Availability of high quality software is the most pressing challenge in applying the new technologies in education (Herschbach, 1994; Miller, 1997; Office of Technology Assessment, 1995; Noreburg & Lundblad, 1997). Underlying this problem is a lack of knowledge of what elements in software will promote different kinds of learning. There are few educators skilled in designing it because software development is costly and time-consuming (McClelland, 1996).

McClelland (1996) indicated having sufficient hardware in locations where learners have access to it problematic and is, of course, partly a financial problem. Computer hardware and software compatibility goes on to be a significant problem. Choosing hardware is difficult because of the many choices of systems to be used in delivering education, the delivery of equipment, and the rapid changes in technology.

Technical and Theoretical Knowledge

A lack of technical and theoretical knowledge is another barrier to the use of Computer-assisted Language Learning technology. Not only is there a shortage of knowledge about developing software to promote learning, as shown above, but many instructors do not understand how to use the new technologies. Furthermore, little is known about integrating these new means of learning into an overall plan. In the communication between McClelland and C. Dede (1995), Dede indicated the more powerful technologies, such as artificial intelligence in computers, might promote learning of higher-order cognitive skills that are difficult to access with today’s evaluation procedures and, therefore, the resulting pedagogical gains may be under-valued. Improper use of technologies can affect both the teacher and learner negatively (Office of Technical Assessment, 1995).

Acceptance of Technologies

We live in a time change. Gelatt (1995) stated that change itself has changed. Change has become so rapid, so turbulent, and so unpredictable that is now called “white water” change (p.10). Murphy & Terry (1998a) indicated the current of change move so quickly that they destroy what was considered the norm in the past, and by doing so, create new opportunities. But, there is a natural tendency for organizations to resist change. Wrong conceptions about the use of technology limit innovation and threaten teachers’ job and security (Zuber-Skerritt, 1994). Instructors are tend not to use technologies that require substantially more preparation time, and it is tough to provide instructors and learners access to technologies that are easy to use (Herschbach, 1994).

Engaging in Computer-assisted Language Learning is a continuing challenge that requires time and commitment. As we approach the 21st century, we realize that technology as such is not the answer to all our problems. What really matters is how we use technology. Computers can/will never substitute teachers but they offer new opportunities for better language practice. They may actually make the process of language learning significantly richer and play a key role in the reform of a country’s educational system. The next generation of students will feel a lot more confident with information technology than we do. As a result, they will also be able to use the Internet to communicate more effectively, practice language skills more thoroughly and solve language learning problems more easily.

Reference

• Benson, G. M., Jr. (1996). Combining Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) and a live
• TV teacher to extend learning opportunities into the home. A learning productivity research and developmental project of the research foundation of the State University of New York and Instructional Systems Inc. Albany, NY: Instructional Systems Inc., State University of New York. (ERIC Doc. ED359936).
• Belisle, Ron, E-mail Activities in the ESL Writing Class, The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. II, No. 12, December 1996
  http://iteslj.org/Articles/Belisle-Email.html
• Boswood, Tim(editor), New Ways of Using Computers in Language Teaching, TESOL, 1997.
• Bush,M.D., R.M.Terry(editors.), Technology-Enhanced Language Learning, 1996.
• Dean, J. (1993). Alternative instructional delivery system: Implications for vocational education, The Visitor, 4, 2-4.
• Froke, M. (1994). A vision and promise: Distance education at Penn State, Part1-Toward an experience-based definition. The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 42 (2), 16-22.
• Gelatt, H. B. (1995). Future sense: Creating the future. The Futurist, 3 (2), 35-43.
• Hahn, H. A. (1995). Distributed training for the reserve component: Course conversion and implementation guidelines for computer conferencing. (ERIC Doc. ED359916).
• Herschbach, D. (1994). Addressing vocational training and retaining through educational technology: Policy alternatives. (Information Series No. 276). Columbus, OH: The National Center for Research in Vocational Education.
• Hill, M. (1995). What is new in telecommunication? Electronic Learning, (6), 16.
• Kasper, L.F., ESL and the Internet: Content, rhetoric and research. Proceedings of Rhetoric and Technology in the New Millennium, 1998.
  http://members.aol.com/Drlfk/rhetoric.html
• Kincaid, H., McEachron, N. B., & McKinney, D. (1994). Technology in public elementary and secondary education: a policy analysis perspective. Menlo Park, CA: Stanford Research Institute.
• Miller, J. V. (1997). Questions about communications technologies for educators: An introduction. In N. M. Singer (Ed.), Communications technologies: their effect on adult, career, and vocational education (Information Series No. 244,1-4). Columbus, OH: The National Center for Research in Vocational Education.
• Mor, Nili, Computers in the ESL Classroom Ð The Switch from “Why” to “How”. 1995
  http://ietn.snunit.k12.il/nili1.htm
• Murphy, T. H., & Terry, R., Jr. (1998a). Adoption of CALL technologies in education: A national delphi. Proceedings of the Forty-Fourth Annual Southern Agricultural Education Research Meeting, 112-123.
• Office of Technology Assessment. (1995). Information technology and its impact on American education. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
• Ortega, Lourdes, Processes and outcomes in networked classroom interaction, Language Learning & Technology, Vol. 1, No. 1, July 1997, pp 82-93,
  http://polyglot.cal.msu.edu/llt/vol1num1/ortega/
• Power, M. A. (1996). Interactive ESL in-service teacher training via distance education. Paper Presented at the Annual Conference of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.
• Purdy, L. N. (Ed). (1996). Reaching new students through new technologies: A Reader. Dubuque: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
• Pickering, John, Teaching on the Internet is learning, Active Learning,
  http://www.cti.ac.uk/publ/actlea/issue2/pickering/
• Renner, Christopher E, Learning to surf the net in the EFL classroom: Background information on the Internet, TESOL Greece Newsletter, 60, Dec. 1998, 9-11 & 61, Jan. 1999, 11-14
• Spotts, T. H., & Bowman, M. A. (1995). Faculty use of instructional technologies in higher education. Educational Technologies, 35 (2), 56-64.
• Singhal, Meena, The Internet and Foreign Language Education: Benefits and Challenges, The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. III, No. 6, June 1997
  http://iteslj.org/Articles/Singhal-Internet.html
• Sperling, Dave, The Internet Guide for English Language Teachers, Prentice-Hall Regents, 1998
• Tanguay, Edward, English Teachers, Prepare Yourselves for the Digital Age.
  http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~tanguay/english-teachers.htm
• Wilkenson, T. W., & Sherman, T. M. (1996). Telecommunications-based distance education: Who’s doing what? Educational Technology, 21 (11), 54-59.
• Zuboff, S. (1998). In the age of the smart machine. New York: Basic Books, Inc.

Describing Appearance of 4 CD’s learning

Foreword

Nowadays, technology has become a society need and widely used in big cities or small towns in Indonesia and  influenced in almost human life, the whole aspect in life, especially in education. There are a lot of methods in language teaching and learning. Now, technology offers the user to achieve better improvement in language learning by using computer. It is CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning), which has an indigenous role in language learning at schools and courses. The performance and interactive aspects that CALL provided has become the great value in language learning progress.

Now, let me give assessing of 4 CD’s learning  by highlighting in the criteria below:

1. Interactivity (feedback and instruction)

According to determining task in designing CALL, CALL Program is a stimulus to the learners/pupils provide a response and the computer will analyze the errors and give feedback. So designer of CALL must be able to analyze what learning tasks should be provided to stimulate interaction between the learners and the computers. Interactivity refers to how the program can stimulate interaction, especially interaction between the computer and the user. It includes the effectiveness of the instructions and feedback provided in the program.

The CD	Interactive
1st CD English Word	Users/pupils  need help to operate the program, especially children. It’s preferable good for elementary schools (grade 2 to grade 6)
2nd CD Vocabulary	“Help menu” can make easier the users/pupils to operate. It’s preferable good for elementary schools (grade three to six)
3rd CD Learn English Beginners	The program provides good interactive facilities. It’s preferable good for elementary schools (grade 4to 7)
4th CD Speak English Intermediate	The program makes user involve with the content and facilities. It’s preferable good for elementary schools (grade 5 to

2. Usability (Flexibility)

For designing CALL, it must be flexible and usable, because CALL program can be used to reinforce or develop what has been learnt in the classrooms. It means to review any parts of a topic or information without any limitation. According to designing structure of the program help learners use the program easier, CALL consists of three parts: 1st, explanation about the tutorial programs, 2nd, screen showing materials highlighted in the program, and the 3rd, interactive exercises. Usability (Flexibility) refers to the flexibility, ease and inherent interest of the program used, and how far the material meets the user’s need.

3. Content Appropriateness

The usability and flexibility are related to content appropriateness, because of designing and testing CALL program, we must concern with the amount of material presented in the program. Content appropriateness  concerns  with the amount of material presented in the program, how easily the material is learned and understood, and how far the material meets the user’s need.

4. Effectiveness

The effectiveness of CALL is shown by significant improvement of students’ scores in their test. If students give positive attitude in learning English through CALL program, they can increase their score, so this program has significant improvement and effective for them. Effectiveness refers to how effectively the program assists language learners to improve their competence of grammar.

5. Performance (Attractiveness)

Generally, the use of technology such as; computer both inside and outside the classrooms, tends to make the learning process more attractive. Performance (Attractiveness) refers to the presentation, lay out of the screen, the color, and the illustrations (picture, diagram, charts, etc) used in the program.

a student of English Language Education Program, UHAMKA.

Spontaneous slip of the tongue is often occurring during speech or in a conversation. Many of us have experienced this type of speech blunder at one point or another, in one language or another. As we know only too well, these verbal behavior mistakes can be exquisitely funny for the listener, but deeply embarrassing for the perpetrator. Slips of the tongue are also known as Spoonerism, referring to Reverend William A. Spooner who was the Dean and Warden of New College, Oxford, at the end of the 19^th century. Reverend Spooner was famous for producing speech errors (unintentional departures from what he meant to say) such as “Work is the curse of the drinking classes” when he meant to say “Drink is the curse of the working classes”, “noble tons of soil” for “noble sons of toil”, and his famous spoonerism, “queer old dean” while referring to “dear old Queen (Victoria)”. The similar problem that occurs in any language users influence a study on the case to be performed.

The study of slips of the tongue has been conducted in three different perspectives, which are the clinical psychological perspective by Freud (1901/1973), linguistic perspectives by Stuurtevant (1947), Wells (1951), Celce-Murcia (1973), Fay (1980), and Laubstein (1987), and psycholinguistic perspectives by Fromkin (1973) and Cutler (1982).

The Clinical psychological perspective represented by Sigmund Freud claiming that slips of the tongue resulted from repressed thoughts which are revealed by the particular errors a speaker makes. Freud was aware of this fact and put it in his monograph, Psychopathology of everyday life (1901). While it is possible that Freud is correct in some cases, such errors reveal as much about the structure of language as they do about repressed thoughts.

Linguists have collected and analyzed slips of the tongue at least as far back as the 8th century when the Arab linguist Al-Ki-sa-i wrote his book, Errors of the populace. The Arab scholar’s interest in such errors was based on the belief that they might provide clues as to how language changes. Since that time, many linguists have been collecting and analyzing these spontaneously produced speech errors. While slips of the tongue have not contributed much to our understanding of how and why languages change, they do tell us a great deal about what we seem to know about our language and how we use this knowledge to speak and to understand what others say to us. We can look at some speech errors and see what they reveal about our linguistic knowledge.

Fromkin (1973), representing psycholinguistic perspectives, noted that the slips of the tongue can be very revealing of the manner in which sentences are created in speech. Her research have demonstrated that when people make slips of the tongue it usually happens on the same level, indicating that each level has a distinct place in the persons brain. Phonemes switch with phonemes, stems with stems, and morphemes switch with other morphemes.

In sum, there are three approach researches to study the phenomena of slips of the tongue, which are the clinical psychological perspective, the linguistic perspective, and the psycholinguistic perspective. Considering the effect of language being used in a conversation or in a speech, for example when the senator John Ashcroft called “Obama bin Laden” when he meant “Osama bin Laden”, it becomes a crucial argumentation between the supporters of Republicans and Democrats. Therefore the study of slips of the tongue that delivers the reasons of the phenomena would bring benefit to the language users.

References:

O’Grady, W., Archibald, J., Aronoff, M., and Rees-Miller, J. 2001. Contemporary Linguistic An Introduction. 4^th ed. Boston, New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s.

Menasche, Lionel. 2001. Writing a Research Paper. Rev. ed. Michigan: The University of Michigan Press.

http://psikoloji.fisek.com.tr/psycholinguistics/Fromkin.html, May 18, 2009, 21.10pm.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVvKBC6ZGDk, May 18, 2009, 21.00pm.

Abstract

The advent of new technologies in learning process is always exciting. They add new dimensions to the class and spark students to higher level of motivation and achievement. CALL gives some impetus both to the teacher and to the student. For the former, it makes the course design easier, and for the latter it creates numerous possibilities for active interaction, and offers larger horizons for him or her to be directly involved in new concepts and way of thinking.
This paper focuses on the educational role of computer in learning a Foreign Language and discusses the advantages and disadvantages of computer in education as well as the new role of the teacher in the learning process. It continues by providing an overall aspect of the potential of authoring packages and ends up by introducing some of them to the readers as representatives of the types of commercially developed software available for the language teacher.
Introduction
Today we have reached the stage where changes occur so rapidly that each of us has continuously to work out a practical code of behaviour for a better adjustment. The nature and direction of changes taking place around the world, and more precisely within the educational system, reinforce the need for a new approach based mainly on the recent technologies of the century. Such an approach is CALL (Computer Assisted Language Learning) and describes the use of a computer as part of a language course.
The pressure towards a more media-based teaching methodology underlines the congruence which exists between society and the educational system. It also stresses the notion that the language teacher has to keep pace with the most recent technologies if he or she wants not only to interest his or her students in the learning process but also to help them overcome anxiety, frustration and apathy which always accompany any language acquisition as they create that sort of “Plateau” which makes the learner stagnate and consequently, unable to move to a higher level.
Computer: its educational role.
The computer has brought a revolution in education. Although it did not immediately get the right place among the language teachers, due to people’s prejudice against any technological device in education which derived from the failure of language laboratory to meet its expectation and enthusiasm when introduced in schools, finally it established itself as an important aspect in language teaching. Language teacher gradually became aware of the many ways in which the unique combination of tutorial, interactive, and visual capabilities enable computers to have a beneficial effect to learner motivation and recognised computers as a means which provided new possibilities for learning, thinking, and growing emotionally and cognitively.
The remarkable versatility of computers is the major cause for their growing popularity in schools. Unlike most machines that are capable of only a few tasks, computer can be programmed to perform a multitude of tasks and thus becomes a useful tool in the hand of teachers and learners helping them at any stage of learning process: presentation, learning, and practice including language use. Linguists in the literature of computers recognised the dual role of computer. That of the computer as a tool and that as a tutor.Ahmat et al (1985) points out the auxiliary role of computer in education characterising it as a medium applied by teacher to serve him in teaching and not to replace teacher in class. This role is apparent if we analyse some acronyms such as CALL and CAI (Computer assisted Language Learning or Computer aided/assisted instruction) where the letter A stands for the words “Assisted or Aided “indicative of the role of computers as a tool.
Freudenstein (1981:213) stressing out the role of teacher in relation to computer advocates the auxiliary role of computer when he writes that “the use of even the most sophisticated hardware does not automatically guarantee good learning results: It all depends on the most important ‘medium’ in any instructional process: the ‘teacher’. Success and failure of media use in the foreign or second language program are directly related to the way in which teachers have learned to handle machines, have experienced their use in the classroom and are/not willing to accept and wok with them.”
The generally held view among the language teachers concerning the use of computer is that they are tools and as such should be used both by teachers and students to improve their work in the sense that it can augment human capabilities and provide limitless possibilities for language learning. What distinguishes computer as a tool from that as a tutor is that the latter, according to Taylor (1980), can be programmed to evaluate students’ responses and thus provide with actions to follow while the former cannot, and thus is not directive. Levy (1997) supports that what is important in CALL as tool is how can computer facilitate teacher in his/her teaching job, that is how can teacher present the designing material more effectively and how can learners acquire most of the teaching process through practice and language use so that learning is succeeded.Because of its novelty computers transform the “dullest task into an adventure” Geoffrion (1983:50) motivating learners to learn a language because the teacher who uses that “genius tool” in his class can use “different and more exciting modes than the course book to present new materials with text, sound video and hypertext facilities offering high-quality interactive feed back on vocabulary, grammar, language answers, culture issues, etc., whenever the student feels s/he needs it.” (Ypsilandis,1995)
In software where the computer acts as a tutor (e.g. Choice master) computer can be used in a variety of ways to create both tests with or without error messages, and tests which are linked to reading or listening skills. A latest version of this software provides the user with corrections or hints explaining at the same time why a certain selection was wrong. What is notable with software programs of this type is that the learner can learn without the presence of teacher and in a privacy without being too concerned by possible errors whereas in the classroom they would hold back.” (Demaiziere 1983:11-12 in Ahmad et al 1985:115). Of course, as it is apparent, the traditional role of teacher shifts in this case from that of classroom operator to that of a language advisor while the students get used to autonomous learning .Kenning and Kenning (1983:2) see the computer as a tutor “assessing the learner’s reply, recording it, pointing out mistakes, giving explanations. In this way, they claim the learner is guided to find the correct answer and also to adapt the material to suit his/her needs and preference. The same linguist does not like seeing the computer simply as a tool for automating educational practices because, as he claims, the computer represents “both an opportunity and a tool for investigating the very practices which are being automated.” (pp.2)
The fact that the acquisition process is related to the effort to convey or interpret meanings and cannot flourish in activities which concentrate on forms has led several commentators on computer- assisted learning (notably van Campen 1980 and Odendall 1982) to state that the computer should be used for formal grammar drilling which favour learning, thus releasing the teacher to run the freer forms of activity which will enhance acquisition. This combination of teacher and computer sounds sensible. Teachers are good at conveying and interpreting meanings. Computers are good at processes which require patient repetition and attention to detail. The teacher, with established skills in communication, analysis and diagnosis, was depended on to assist and, when necessary, assess the learner. Commenting on the two roles of computer we would agree with what Ypsylantis (1995) said that “the computer as tool unlike the computer as tutor does not make the teacher redundant, as does the computer as tutor nor does it suggest a clear- on line role of the teacher. In either case it seems to leave the freedom to the teacher for class-work with the computer.”

Computer and Language Learning
Recent developments in linguistics as well as in language teaching and learning theories and practice call for new approaches, strategies, techniques, equipment, methods and materials to facilitate learning.Learner’s reaction to computers in education appears to be generally very favourable. Part of this fascination is undoubtedly due to the appeal of the visual effects allotted by modern microcomputer systems using TV display a success. As a result of this unique combination of tutorial, interactive, and visual capabilities, computers frequently have a beneficial effect on learner’s motivation.
The computer can do “far more in CALL than ‘silently ape’ the tutorial mode of question-and-answer instruction. There is now the medium-term prospect of what might be termed ‘total learning stations’, combining the features of language laboratory with a cassette recorder under full computer control, video viewing position, high¬ speed random access interactive video, a computer terminal for CALL work, and a wide variety of other functions.” (Last, 1984: 3) Thus within its limitations the computer has a very great potential for the teacher and the learner of languages.Using the computer in the class, a teacher applies both the behaviourist and acquisition approaches to language learning. The first because historically the behaviourist approaches are based on the principle that a response, linguistic or otherwise, is a learned behaviour resulting from associating that response with a given stimulus. Through positive reinforcement for incorrect behaviour, these responses become over learned until they are automatic. The second because according to Krashen’s theory of second language learning and acquisition, the organiser and affective filter are central to the acquisition portion of the overall model, as they are involved in the learner’s unconscious analysis of strings of speech in the processing of speech input, the production of input, and the synthesis of new rules. (Phillips, 1986)
Looking at the above factors in term of computer courseware, and following Krashen’s theoretical model with the addition of some insights from communicative methods, CALL software is representative of an acquisition-oriented approach because it:
1. Promotes a communicative interaction between the learner and the computer.
2. Provides comprehensible input at a level.
3. Promotes a positive self-image in the learner.
4. Provides a challenge but does not produce frustration or anxiety.
5. Does not include overt error correction.
6. Allows the learner the opportunity to produce comprehensible output.
7. Promotes effectively, acting as a catalyst, the leamer -leamer interaction in the target language.
Traditional CALL software lent itself effectively for developing mainly reading skills, through vocabulary and grammar exercises and secondly writing skills. The use of computer to practise grammar will comfort especially an ESP/T teacher who usually has to teach students, with insufficient linguistic competence. Exercises can range from simple ones as filling with the right article to practising reported speech which is a fairly difficult area of grammar. This is the case in the Kavala TEI where the students are taught mainly reading skills and secondly listening and writing in the class, and then they are sent to Language Self Access Centre for further practice with the assistance of the language computer programs.In some cases a technological attribute distinguishes one medium from others in terms of the learning experiences it affords. The technology of computer based instruction allows the kind of individualisation and interaction not permitted by other media (e.g. video). This situation facilitates learning by presenting the learner with a stimulus and evoking a response. Such a situation is often overlooked in the case of books.
Curricular Suggestions for CALL course for teachers include familiarity with the history of microcomputers, with technology, and with educational concerns touching the use of CALL. Consideration is given to learner’s needs and professional objectives in the use of the new medium. An additional area of consideration in judging the probable effectiveness of foreign language software is the degree to which the materials may directly or indirectly promote the use of particular strategies in the learner. There are several types of strategies that seem particularly well-suited to, being introduced and practised on the computer. In reading, for example, psycholinguistic research pointed to the importance of skimming exercises. In writing, there are production strategies such as writing dialogues, brain storming, list making and flexible outlining that many second-language learners are either unaware of or ignore.Simulations vial CAI/CALL are limited only by the scope and imagination of teachers and students. Students can interact with computer programs on a background of illustrations with the simulation itself or they can build screen displays to show their growing control of the L2. Ahmad et al(1985:6) sees the computer “ to stimulate group discussion on a specific theme in the foreign language.”
Time that followed the establishment of computer in Language Learning brought many hardware and software developments. Multimedia programs can display text, high quality sound, animation and video. There are CD-ROM programs like “Longman English Works, for example, which help the learner practise his/her skills in listening and speaking and develop his/her pronunciation. The learner has the ability to listen to the dialogues and passages with or without the written text. He/She can record his voice on the hard disk and incorporate photos through the use of a scanner. So, the emphasis is extended from reading or writing skills to spoken language and listening skills. Using the numerous activity options, the learner can decide at any time how easy or how challenging he/she wants the exercise to be. Multimedia offer great opportunities for differentiation, especially in mixed-ability classes, as it is the case in the Kavala TEI.According to Ypsilandis (1995) “Multimedia CALa software is more learner-centered as it is incumbent upon the learner/user to decide how to travel through the program and how much time to spend on every item.” Computer flexibility regarding time makes it ideal for “distance teaching/learning” since the distance users (learners) can be given access to database of the teaching material and the opportunity to copy the material on their hard disk or alternatively offers learners the possibility of sending and receiving electronic mail messages for real natural communication with e-mail.
E-mail is a tool for intercultural communication around the world. It “provides students {with) an excellent opportunity for real, natural communication” and “empowers students for independent learning” ( Warschauer, 1995:2). The pedagogical principles lying behind the use of e-mail is to motivate student teachers providing them with opportunities to improve their second or third language skills working with authentic materials. The advantage of learning projects established via-e-mail is that they put students in contact with native speakers or learners of English or other language around the world and thus offer an authentic context motivating at the same time the learner for communication .
In the field of CALL there is a considerable shift of interest from static, stand-alone materials towards potentially dynamic internet-based resources for language learning. “The internet provides not only vast and diverse information resources, including authentic target language materials, but also a range of synchronous and asynchronous communication and collaboration solution .” (Breffni &Schwienhorst, 2000). These technological developments can be of considerable benefit particularly to ESP students who are learners who demand resources that can be customised and extended for and by them.
Multimedia is a means of promoting collaboration and the teacher who uses them in class should recognise and exploit the range of modes of collaboration the computer offers. Furthermore, computer has the potential of generating dynamic types of interactions, not only between the computer and the student but with other students and teachers as well. In other words it generates cooperative learning, learning accompanied by the instructor and autonomous learning. In the light of these changes, it becomes necessary for the teacher to accept the changes the use of multimedia in class brought and adapt his/her new role in class as well as the new physical space of classroom in the new teaching and learning conditions in order to accommodate different kinds of interaction: small group, student to student and student to computer. Warschauer (1995:93) supports that “ electronic communication can help foster a new teacher-student relationship in which the students become more autonomous and the teacher becomes more a facilitator.”
Advantages of CALL
Ahmad et al (1985) evaluating the pedagogical contribution of computer admits that the feelings of enthusiasm and enjoyment that the learners who use CALL programs experience, create a positive attitude to the activity of learning and to the subject matters.According to the same writer the advantages of computer fall into three types: those which “are part of inherent nature,” those which “benefit the teacher,” and those which “benefit the learner” (Ahmat et al 1985:4). Because of its inherent nature computer can handle a much wider range of activities, and much more powerfully, than other technological aids. More than just this, the computer can offer interactive learning by conducting a two-way learning session with the student. It is much more than a mere programmed textbook, whose powers of interaction are virtually limited to an ability to reveal the correct answer.
The computer can work accurately and precisely. It does not tire, and its attention does not alter. It can repeat an activity with none of the errors which easily arise from repetition by humans. “It can handle a very large volume of interaction and can deliver to students feedback of some subtlety, at more frequent intervals than would be possible for a human teacher in all but individual tuition session.” (Ahmat et al 1985:4)Another potentiality of the computer is its ability to create highly motivating microworlds. Computers can create small worlds that students explore freely. For example, a student can rearrange reading topics to suit personal needs. He can even become one of the characters in a story and directly influence its outcome.
The computer can also provide privacy to students who can “work freely without being too concerned by possible errors whereas in the classroom they would hold back” (Demaiziere 1983 11-12 in Ahmad et al 1985: 115).From the point of view of the teacher, the computer presents aspects of a particular promise. Prominent among these is the versatility in handling different kinds of materials. The simplest is the one way presentation of information, in the form of text, graphic, audio and video. “The computer can take the drudgery out of teaching by doing all the boring, repetitive work, leaving to the human teacher the more creative aspects of the job. The computer is an obedient beast and will readily take on the role of drudge if required to.” (Higgins & Johns 1984:9). It can keep score and display the score, records results, errors, success rates, the time spent, and much more information for the teacher to view at a later time. Thus, the teacher can examine students’ errors and scores and other information and decide about the students’ progress and the efficiency of CALL materials. Therefore, the teacher has the possibility to modify easily the exercises and materials he prepares and at the same time the teacher can have access to detail information on his pupils strengths, weaknesses, and progress, which helps them to assess individual learners. So, the computer offers the opportunity to teachers to make better use of their time and expertise and allows them to spend more time on preparation and on activities such as discussion, simulation or project work (Kenning and Kenning 1983). By providing a means of usefully occupying part of the class, it opens up the possibility of small group activities. So in a way computers contribute to a creative and imaginative teaching method in those parts of the course where teacher-student contact is more necessary.
The teacher who uses the computer in his/her teaching should give up the concept of a teacher who is the “knower” giving his students the opportunity to share in his knowledge. Ager (1986: 103-104) seems to share that concept when he admits that “Language teaching has always suffered from the necessity for teachers to play God” The new role of teacher is no longer to disseminate knowledge as such, but how to help students get access and aquire information so that knowledge is succeeded.For students the computer offers many advantages because of flexibility of time and the variety of educational courses it offers to students who may choose when and how long to spend on studying particular topics. More than this, the computer can also allow students to take courses, or parts of courses, at a distance.
Whatever the factors of time and distance, the computer retains its potential for personalised instruction. The computer can be made sensitive to the learner’s pace, pattern of response, and so on, and can adjust the linguistic material to meet the individual. The fact that the computer provides student with an immediate reply after his/her response is very motivating and keeps his/her interest to continue. While working with the computer the student has the computer’s full attention and can work at the speed best suited to the individual. Experience has shown that learning with a computer is rated high by students. “There is a novelty of working with the computer, together with its diversity and sophistication. And there is an element of competition. Students like ‘talking on computer’ and trying to beat it”. (Ahmad et al 1985:6).
Disadvantages of computers in language learning
A number of factors have contributed to growing acceptance of the potential role of the computer in the language teaching curriculum. Some of the objections referring to CALL involve general philosophical notions about language as a humanities subject to which a mechanical device such as the computer can make no contribution. Some of the computer criticisms are related to the nature of the computer itself, while others to the present state of CALL. According to Thomas “the prospect of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) has worried teachers even more, since it unites all the anxieties-greater success, exploitation of mysterious and secret technologies, and eventually, the replacement of the teacher his/ herself. (Thomas 1986:113).The same writer evaluating the use of computer in Language Learning dares an “ideological” criticism claiming that the ready- made programs seem to impose the curriculum and teaching materials on the teacher, mainly on those who lack authoring skills.”

The fact that most of the computer programs are rather “importable” is considered as a drawback by Ahmad et al (1985) since they need modification, which is not always possible and surely it is time-consuming.
There is in addition, the question of the range of activities to which the computer can contribute. Computers are not suited to all activities that go on in the classroom. The kind of exercises which lends itself best to computerization is one in which there is only a small set of acceptable answers to each question and in which it is fairly easy to predict where the learner may go wrong.
While the computer is able to accommodate a substantial range of learning styles, it is certainly not a complete substitute for the teacher: “The material which can usefully be handled by the computer represents at best a tiny fraction of the linguistic knowledge which a teacher brings to bear in language class”. (Ahmad et al 1985:7) Kenning and Kenning (1983:4) denote that the computer “operates in a predetermined fashion and cannot cope with the unexpected.” It cannot effectively conduct an ‘open-ended’ dialogue with the student because it has neither the vocabulary, nor the ability, to understand the enormous range of utterances possible in any human language. The computer cannot handle ambiguity with any confidence. It can ‘learn’ only in a restricted sense.
Types of activities which require spoken production are not suited to CALL because the computer cannot understand the spoken input from the learner. It can only respond to students if it is programmed. The computer does not work well in tasks which demand rapid extensive reading from the screen of language texts. Books do the job better. Computer activities which involve rebuilding or rearranging texts have proved their value.The development of CALL, according to Ahmad et al (1985: requires knowledge of three fields: “competence in the target subject area,” “pedagogical skills”, and “computing expertise”. (Ahmad et al 1985: In language teaching it is seldom the case that any one individual has a sufficient competence in all these skills from the beginning. The solution to the problem is given by Ahamad et al (1985) who suggest cooperation between computing and language experts and a serious effort from the language teacher to learn a programming or an author language.
Many experts have asserted that the computer can enhance linguistic competence but it can do nothing to develop communicative competence. However, through properly designed activities, the student can have “feeling” for how the forms of a foreign language are used in communication. This is what the project carried out at Concordia University tried to do. Its orientation was “to develop more communicative and discourse -oriented material that was the computer’s preeminent ability as an interactive partner” (Wyatt 1984: 36).
A considerable disadvantage of the use of computer in Language Learning is that it cannot-yet-operate in the same way as the human brain, taking imaginative leaps and cutting through a tangled web of argument to arrive at new insights. Underwood (1984:45 ) adds another drawback of CALL programs when he denotes that the computer miss “anything resembling what we do when we use language, any semblance of communication, even so much as the ‘feel’ of conversation language.”
Authoring packages
For the teacher who wishes to design CALL programs there are more than one choice. There is always the possibility of developing a program or learning a programming language or try an authoring package. Authoring packages allow the teacher to write programs with minimal computing knowledge. According to Higgins(1986:59) “An authoring package designed specifically for creating CALL software enables the non-programmer to create usable materials for his or her students exceptionally quickly.” An authoring package opens the door to do-it- yourself software, shielding the user the complexities of the logic programming and offering a simple framework into which the CALL material can be slotted.
Wyatt (1984) refers to Authoring package as “authoring system” and describes it as ready- made computer programs that constitute precast formats into which the course writer (teacher) can insert his own pedagogical material. The emphasis to systems like this is always on ease of use. In the introduction to one such system we read “Neither the teacher nor the learner needs to be familiar with anything more technical in relation to the computer than the ability to switch the machine on and the knowledge of which way round to insert a floppy disk into the disk driver – the ‘package’ does the rest” (Wyattl984:7). Although so far working with an authoring package seems an easy job for the teacher, however, we think it is important to mention here the significance of the teacher being able to choose the right program to meet his/her need in relation always to the syllabus objectives in which such programs have to be integrated.
Wanting to give an overall aspect of the potential of the authoring packages we cannot but refer to limitations mentioned by Ahmad et al (1985:30) that although they are an easy way to start, however, the package necessarily restricts the form of what the teacher can produce even more than do author languages. The teacher cannot use his imagination to exploit productively the text and develop different form of exercises which he thinks will help students’ four skills because authoring packages are “usually confined to the question-answer type of exercise and are generally linear, with no branching facilities.”(Ahmad et al 1985:30).The activities described below are not exhaustive. They can be taken, however, as representative of the types of commercially developed software available for the language teacher.
STORYBOARD
Storyboard is an early CALL authoring courseware which virtually demands no knowledge of programming whatsoever on the part of the teacher or learner:The program was developed by John Higgins. It enables the teacher to create a short text, which is displayed on the Computer screen and after a time the text is reduced to dashes indicating the length of the missing words. The student’s job is to try to reconstruct the text. The student may follow different strategies. He may begin with low frequency content words, he remembers from the first reading, or high-frequency words such as articles, common verbs, prepositions, conjunctions and pronouns. He may even try collocation skills something which seems more appropriate for an ESP student. Storyboard offers a tremendous flexibility. The student has the option of reading the text first, if the student gets stuck, it is possible to call up the first letter of the word, a whole word itself or to read the text again.
The facility to provide the students with instant feedback sustains student’s interest. Moreover, it enables students to feel a sense of accomplishment and progress and the teacher to know whatever the students did to arrive at such an answer. The teacher has access to a detailed information concerning his students, strengths, weaknesses and progress which help him to assess individual learners.
Conclusion
It seems that the computer was introduced in class to stay. The establishment of the computer in education is not without appeal, it is the kind of challenges to which one feels drawn to respond to it. The new conditions created by the advent of multimedia in teaching and learning makes it necessary for both teachers and students to understand that their roles have to change since electronic communication can help foster a new teacher -student relationship in which the student becomes more autonomous and teacher more a facilitator. Computers and teachers should not be seen as rivals but as complements to each other and students should view the computer as an allay willing to help them in their learning process.
One of the optimal ways to intensify and increase the relevance of foreign language learning and teaching is to integrate the use of media technologies and the internet in the teaching and learning process. Integrating CALL in teaching a foreign language seems to be now the present and future progress in education. The many authoring packages available in the market makes it feasible.
In conclusion, despite the various criticisms against the usefulness of CALL, the future of foreign language teaching will we think be endowed with that little spark capable of setting great motivation and interest in the most apathetic class. In short, the computer, which presents the teacher with a clear challenge and a unique opportunity for change, should, we think, be part and parcel of any teaching program.

References

Ager,D., (1986) “Help levels in CALL materials ” in Cameron, K. C. Dodd, W.S. and Rahtz, S.P.Q. Computers and Modern Language Studies Ellis Horwood Ltd.
Ahmad, K., Greville, C., Rogers. M., & Sussex R., 1985.Computers, Language Learning and Language Teaching. Cambridge: CUP.
Breffni O’ Rourk & Klaus Schwienhorst, (2000). Learner databases and virtual worlds: Using Computers to create collaborative learning environments. Dublin, ALC & IRAAL
Demaiziere, 1983: 11-12 in Ahmad et all 1985:115).
Freundenstein in Alatis J E, Altman , Alatis PM. (1981: 275).
Geoffrion, Leo D & Olga P. Geoffrion. 1983:. Computers and Reading Instruction. Reading : Addison –Wesley Publishing co.
Higgins,J & Johns, T., (1984:)Computers in Language Learning : London: Collins.
Higgins, J., (1986). “Reading, Writing and pointing: communicating with the computer” In Geoffrey Leech & Christopher N. Candlin (eds), Computers in English language Teaching and Research, London: Longman.
Kenning and Kenning (1983:2) An introduction to Computer Assisted Language Teaching Cambridge: CUP.
Krashen, S., (1987). Pinciples and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. London Prentice -Hall International
Last, R. W., (1984,3). Language Teaching and the Microcomputer. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Leech, Geoffrey & Christopher N. Candlin (eds), (1986). Computers in English Language Teaching and Research. London: Longman.
Levy, M., (1997) Computer Language Learning: Context and Conceptualization. Clarendon Paperbacks.
Phillips, M., (1986). “CALL in its educational context”. In Geoffrey Leech & Christopher N. Candlin (eds), Computers in English Language Teaching and Research, London: Longman.
Taylor, R. P., (1980) (ed.), The Computer in the School: Tutor, Tool ,Tutee, Teacher’s College, Collumbia University (New York: Teacher;s College Press, New Work) .
Warschaucer, M., (1995) E-mail for English teaching: Bringing the internet and computer learning networks into the language classroom Illinois: TESOL inc.
Underwood, J. H., (1984).Linguistics, Computers and the Language Teacher. Newbury House Publishers, Inc.
Wyatt, D. H.,(ed), (1984). Computer Assisted Language Instruction .Oxford: Pergamon
Ypsilandis, G., (1995) Unpublished Ph.D Thesis.
Ypsilandis, G., (199?) Computer and teacher role(s) in the language classroom.

TAKEN FROM ;TEI OF KAVALA

.
.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.
.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.
.
.
.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Name :  Nanang A.S.,  S.Pd

Date of birth:  March 16,1962

Address:  Jl.bangkaII no.25 c PelamampangJakarta Selatan

Phone:  08161642098

Job accupation :  Teacher of SMA 55 Jakarta

COLLEGIAN OF PASCA SARJANA UHAMKA

MAGISTER PENDIKAN BAHASA INGGRIS